V. Materials from Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands
The Portuguese consistently referred to Korea either as Cauli or Core, as it was first introduced in Polo's Travels. The first European on record to employ the proper designation "Chosun" was Father Martin de Rada of Spain. Due to the influences of Padroado, Spain had been excluded from trade and missionary labours in Asia, and consequently Spanish historical records related to the Far East were initially few and far between. However, as Spain began to exercise its interest in the Philippines from the later half of the 16th century, Spanish materials on the Far East began to surface. In April of 1565, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi landed on Cebu and attacked the neighboring islands in turn, thus establishing Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines. Legazpi was succeeded by Guido de Lavezares upon his death in 1572. Lavezares vigorously promoted trade and missionary work in China and with the assistance of Chinese officials commissioned by the Chinese court to eradicate pirates who pestered China's southern coasts, he was eventually successful in dispatching an envoy to China. Martin Rada, originally of the Augustine order, was a member of Spain's first delegation to China. Based on materials furnished by the Chinese, Rada completed his Relation in Spanish in 1576, which he presented to King Phillip II. In the later part of Chapter 10, Rada explains the tributary system between China and its neighbors in Northeast Asia, and lists Korea as one of the countries that annually submits tributes to China. Rada goes on to explain that foreign envoys to China are required to stay in a designated district in Peking, thus providing more insight into the tributary system than had previous works by Polo and Barbosa. However, he does illustrate the limitation of his knowledge by implying that Chosun and Korea are two separate countries.
The Portuguese consistently referred to Korea either as Cauli or Core, as it was first introduced in Polo's Travels. The first European on record to employ the proper designation "Chosun" was Father Martin de Rada of Spain. Due to the influences of Padroado, Spain had been excluded from trade and missionary labours in Asia, and consequently Spanish historical records related to the Far East were initially few and far between. However, as Spain began to exercise its interest in the Philippines from the later half of the 16th century, Spanish materials on the Far East began to surface. In April of 1565, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi landed on Cebu and attacked the neighboring islands in turn, thus establishing Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines. Legazpi was succeeded by Guido de Lavezares upon his death in 1572. Lavezares vigorously promoted trade and missionary work in China and with the assistance of Chinese officials commissioned by the Chinese court to eradicate pirates who pestered China's southern coasts, he was eventually successful in dispatching an envoy to China. Martin Rada, originally of the Augustine order, was a member of Spain's first delegation to China. Based on materials furnished by the Chinese, Rada completed his Relation in Spanish in 1576, which he presented to King Phillip II. In the later part of Chapter 10, Rada explains the tributary system between China and its neighbors in Northeast Asia, and lists Korea as one of the countries that annually submits tributes to China. Rada goes on to explain that foreign envoys to China are required to stay in a designated district in Peking, thus providing more insight into the tributary system than had previous works by Polo and Barbosa. However, he does illustrate the limitation of his knowledge by implying that Chosun and Korea are two separate countries.
Rada's Relation was not published for a long time and remained in transcribed form; consequently, only a handful of Europeans at the time had access to its contents. In particular, Bernardino de Escalante's An Account of the Empire of China (Serville, 1577), the first Spanish book on China, relied heavily on the published Portuguese works of Cruz and Barros, and none of the materials related to Korea in Rada's Relation is included in this particular work. Although Rada and Escalente were both Spaniards who shared a common goal of opening up the Far East for trade and Christianity, they were nevertheless reluctant to share what they knew with others. Rada's manuscripts, however, played a significant role in the publication of another worked entitled Historia, written by Gonzalez de Mendoza. In 1583, Mendoza was commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to write a book on China. Although he had himself never set foot in Asia, he completed Historia in 1585, relying on information provided in works previously published, such as Cruz's Tractato, Rada's Relation, Ramusio's Navigationi et Viaggi, the Jesuit letters, and Escalante's An Account of the Empire of China. Mandoza's Historia was frequently translated up to the late 16th century and reached its 30th edition, thus becoming the most well known work on China in Europe at the time. However, since the book focused mainly on southern China, it did little to promote new insight into Korea at the time.
In 16th century Italy, most of the literature on Asia was being written in Latin and Italian in cities such as Rome and Venice. Francanzano da Montalboddo edited Columbus' and Vespucci's ship logs made during their voyages to the American continent and published an Italian translation in Venice in 1507. Furthermore, Ludovico di Varthema recorded his travel experiences to Southeast Asia and published The itinerary of Ludovico di Varthema of Bologna from 1502 to 1508 in Italian in Rome in 1510, and again in 1511 in Latin. The first Italian book to mention Korea was Navigationi et Viaggi, edited by Ramusio, considered Europe's first modern collection of maritime travel accounts. Borrowing data from his contemporary explorers, Ramusio collected and edited various maritime records available at the time to formulate in Italian a three volume folio entitled Navigationi et Viaggi in 1550, 1559 and 1556. His goal was nothing less than to record for posterity the "위대하고 가장 놀라운 업적: 후에 삽입예정" currently promoted by Portugal and Spain. Since the latter two volumes were already completed in 1553, it is safe to assume that at least the drafts of all three volumes were completed by then. Navigationi et Viaggi is regarded as the first systematic effort to compile and edit the navigational records of the age of discovery. Ramusio placed particular significance on Spanish and Portuguese efforts to establish colonies in India and in the New World. Consequently, volumes 1 and 2 cover materials on Asia and Africa, and volume 3 is devoted to materials related to the New World. Ramusio also translated the original Latin edition of Polo's Travels into Italian and includes it in volume 2, thus publishing Italy's first book to mention Korea.
In addtion, Ramusio also compiled, edited and translated materials from the works of Empoli, da Gama, Tome Pires, Barros, and Duarte Barbosa, including them in volume 1. However, as observed earlier, since the publication of Portuguese sources was under strict supervision of the Portuguese crown, Ramusio was unable to include any other works that mention Korea, other than Polo's Travels. In the late 16th century, Portugal was the only European nation to actively trade with the Far East. With the support of the Vatican, Portugal monopolized the East Asian sea route, in essence controling all maritime trade with the Far East in central locations such as Goa, Malacca, Macao, and Nagasaki. However, from the late 16th century, with the dramatic shifts in the political landscape of Europe, more and more countries began to show an interest in Asia. In 1580, Spain's Phillip II annexed Portugal, thus constructing a vast sea empire stretching as far as Asia and the American continent. The Portuguese had no recourse but to share with Spain their materials on the Far East, which they had so jealousy guarded for so long. Furthermore, both Britain and the Netherlands, having belatedly realized Asia's potential as a viable market, expanded their trade with Asia, and with it information on the Far East, which had previously been limited to Catholic Europe, was steadily being disseminated throughout Protestant Europe as well.
The individual largely responsible for the success of Dutch trade in East Asia was Jan Huygen van Linschoten. He was born in 1563 in the Dutch region of Utrecht. When he was 16, Linschoten left home to team up with his brothers, who were merchants in Spain. It was not long afterwards that Linschoten began to harbor dreams of sailing the high seas. When in 1580 the union between Portugal and Spain made it possible for the Dutch to participate in Portuguese and Spanish trade in India, Linshoten set off to seek his fortune and adventure in Asia, arriving in India on September 21, 1583. Linschoten's official title was assistant to Vincente de Fonseca, recently appointed archbishop of Goa. Based on his 5-year experience in Goa, Linshoten published his Travel Notes in 1595 upon his return to the Netherlands. The short segment on Korea in Travel Notes is as follows: ..so stretches the coast from Japan again to the north, recedes after that inward, northwest ward, to which Coast those from Japan trade with the Nation which is called Cooray, from which I have good, comprehensive and true information, as well as from the navigation to this Country, from the navigators (he calls them pilots) who investigated the situation there and sailed there. Although Linschoten's above claim is doubtful, Travel Notes is significant in that it was the first book written in Dutch to properly refer to Korea as "Chosun." Linschoten's Voyages followed in 1596. The first edition of Voyages, published in Dutch, details the sea route from Europe to East Asian India, the Strait of Malacca, the Malay Islands, and the Chinese Coast. Linschoten himself had never traveled to the Far East, and the segments on China and Japan were based on materials compiled by Dirck Gerritsz, a fellow countryman who had the nickname of Chinaman, and books written by Maffei and Mendoza. Linschoten mentions Korea way into the Japanese segment. He explains that while Korea is situated in close proximity to China, with a north latitude of 34 and 35 degrees, virtually nothing is known about the country. Although reference to Korea is limited to its geographical location, Linschoten's book nonetheless played an important role in the opening of trade between the Netherlands and East Asia. In late 16th century, the Dutch sought to reach Asia from the (as yet uncharted) northern sea route. Lischoten was himself confident that such a route existed and personally lead the exploration of this region on two separate occasions, in 1594 and in 1595. Daunted by the failure of the first exploration to discover the northern sea route, the Dutch decided on the sea route previously established by the Portuguese and dispatched a fleet to India in 1595. Although Linschoten's Voyages was published in 1596, his sea chart had already published a year earlier, and the Dutch fleet embarked on its voyage to East Asia relying on Linschoten's charts.
The publication of Linschoten's Voyages provided a significant turning point in Europe's maritime history, for it was largely due to the publication of this book that the sea route to India and the Far East, previously known only to the Portuguese, became available to all Europeans. Not long after the first edition of Linschoten's Voyages was published, it was translated into several languages. The English and German edition came out in 1598, the Latin edition came out in 1599 in Frankfurt and Amsterdam, and the French edition was published in 1610. Among these the original Dutch edition and the French translation reached second edition. Frequently translated and widely read by Europeans of the time, Linschoten's work made a significant contribution to ushering Protestant Europe into the age of discovery.
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